The Role of Computer and Internet in Education

CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER USE IN EDUCATION JAN Department VAN DEN AKKER, PAUL KEURSTEN and TJEERD PLOMP of Education, University of Twente, P. O. The Netherlands Abstract Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, There is an increasing awareness that disappointing experiences with the introduction of computers in education are a consequence of insufficiently taking into account factors that are crucial when introducing change in educational settings. Many of the problems in the literature show great similarity with the kind of problems often experienced in curriculum implementation.In this context the endeavors to make computer use an integrated part of classroom activities are analyzed. Emphasis will be laid on the interaction between teachers and courseware; elements for a more effective strategy for the integration of computer use in educational practice will be presented, with special attention to the design of support materials as an essential part of courseware. Introduction Despi te many national and local initiatives, examples of successful computer use in classroom practice are still relatively rare. In many countries the number of computers in schools has considerably increased in recent years.However, little progress has been made: still few teachers are actual users; software use is often restricted to drill and practice type; the alignment with the curriculum pattern is poor. Research results (of both surveys and case studies) from many countries point to the conclusion that there is still a long way ahead before computer use will be effectively integrated in most classrooms (see e. g. Becker, 1986; Office of Technology Assessment [OTA], 1988, for the USA;, Chomienne, 1988; Olson & Eaton, 1986, for Canada; Cox, 1987, for the U. K. ; Inspectorate, 1986; Plomp & Van den Akker, 1988, for the Netherlands).There is an increasing awareness that these disappointing experiences are a consequence of insufficiently taking into account factors that are crucial wh en introducing change in educational settings. Many of the reported problems that schools and teachers face when implementing computer use show great similarity with the kind of problems often experienced in curriculum implementation (cf. Fullan, Miles, & Anderson, 1987; Sheingold, Martin, & Endreweit, 1987; Walker, 1986). For that reason we would like to analyze the endeavor to make computer use an integrated part of classroom activities 65 6 .I. VAN DEN AKKER et al from a curriculum implementation perspective. We shall start with an overview of the variables that can influence the process and outcomes of curriculum implementation. For the different categories of those variables we shall then discuss the literature on computer use in education. Emphasis will be laid on the interaction between teachers and courseware. Based on this problem analysis we shall present elements for a more effective strategy for the integration of computer use in the educational practice.Special attentio n will be paid to the design of (written) support materials as an essential part of courseware. An Overview of Factors Affecting Implementation _ Drawing upon the work of Fullan (1982) and of Van Velzen, Miles, Ekholm, Hameyer, and Robin (1985), we propose a framework for discussing factors influencing the implementation of innovations in the educational practice by distinguishing four categories of variables: national (and/or state and/or district) context; characteristics of the school (organization); external support; characteristics of the innovation itself.Within each category several variables can be mentioned: – National context central legislation and regulations; system of policy formation and decision making in educational affairs; time, resources and facilities made available for an innovation; proclaimed values and aims about an innovation; attitude of politicians and (other) opinion leaders about an innovation. School organization experiences with earlier innovat ions; role of the school leader(s); methods of decision making; available facilities (time, money, materials); internal co-operation and mutual support; distribution and exchange of information.External support inservice training; assistance with internal coaching and guidance personal contacts with – – staff development; for individual teachers; experts and colleagues from other schools. – Innovation characteristics relevance of the innovation for needs and problems of users; clarity of the goals and practical meaning of a change proposal; Implementation of Computers in Education 67 – complexity of innovation requirements, especially in teaching quality and practicality of the innovation products. ehavior; In the next sections we shall first summarize literature on the integration of computer use, as far as it relates to the first three categories (national context, school organization, and external support). We refer to those categories of variables as the conditionalfactors, because they are conditional for the ultimate use of products by teachers in their daily work. Afterwards we shall focus our attention on the characteristics of the innovation product itself in relation to the teacher’s role.Conditional Which computer literature, emphasis Factors for the Integration of Computer Use research results about use in education? We but restrict ourselves on empirically based conditional factors can be found in the literature on do not intend to offer an exhaustive overview of this to a summary of some selected publications, with an sources. National Context Still little empirical research is done about the impact of variables in the national (state/district) context on the actual use of computers in the school practice.Descriptions of national policies on information technology in many countries are available (e. g. Beishuizen, Tobin & Weston, 1988), but focused research efforts in this area are hard to find. Broad attention for policy variables is given by Fullan et al. (1987) in their study on the implementation of the new information technology in Ontario schools. Apart from obvious tasks as investing in hardware, software development, research, teacher training and the like, policy makers should also play a stimulating role in the planning and co-ordination of implementation activities.Proclamation of new aims for the educational system and encouragement â€Å"from above† for initiatives and activities in the field can be helpful for the many participants in the innovation. School Organization The influence of the school organization on the implementation of computer use has been studied more frequently. The results usually confirm the findings from the more general innovation literature. Encouragement and support from school administrators and principals are of vital importance (Carmichael, Burnett, Higginson, Moore, & Pollard, 198. ; Cox, Rhodes, & Hall, 1988; Fullan et al. , 1987). Help fr om principals is especially necessary in providing for facilities for training, the purchase of hardware and software, the rearrangement of timetables and other organizational measures. Also conducive to the implementation process is a positive school climate where teachers give mutual support by exchanging ideas and experiences and by providing feedback (Carmichael et al. , 1985; Cox, 1987; Inspectorate, 1986). 68 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al.A beneficial role can also be played by computer coordinators, especially if they combine computing expertise with strong interpersonal and organizational skills (Strudler & Gall, 1988). Also measures have to be taken to secure long term supplies and maintenance of hardware and software (Bitter & Gore, 1986; Wagshal, 1986). External Support A growing body of experience and research data has become available about effective components of inservice training and other forms of external support for schools and teachers in the use of computers.A criticis m on past inservice approaches is that the emphasis on technical aspects was too strong, while too little attention was paid to the integration of computer use in the daily classroom practice and also to the skills in selecting and evaluating courseware ~~homienne, 1988; D’Arcy & Gardner, 1988; Wiske et al. , 1988). Teachers need a strong support to overcome their (initial) problems of uncertainty and their concerns about changing teacher/student relationships and about accountability (OTA, 1988).There is a growing consensus about characteristics of inservice training that can increase its effectiveness (OTA, 1988; Stecher & Solorzano, 1987): appropriate balance between lecture and (guided) practice; detailed curriculum guides and plans for the course plus lesson-related materials and hand-outs; clear training objectives; inservice lessons linked to teachers’ own instructional practice; peer interaction, including communication during hands-on activities; strategies fo r teaching heterogeneous groups; follow-up support and guidance. This (selective) literature review indicates a rough imilarity between conditional factors for both integration of computer use and curriculum implementation. Future, more focused, research activities are necessary to sharpen our insights in this area. Product Characteristics and the Teacher’s Role â€Å"Educators and educational researchers consistently cite one factor as central to the full development of technology’s use in the schools – the classroom teacher† (OTA, 1988, p. 87). For that reason it is important to take a closer look at the changes facing teachers at the implementation of computer use in their classroom practice.As Fullan (1982) has pointed out, nearly every innovation requires teachers to change on several dimensions: the use of new materials, alterations in their teaching behavior, and changes in their beliefs and attitudes. In this section we want to explore how certain characteristics of the new materials (especially courseware) can influence changes in teaching behavior and beliefs. From the general innovation literature we know that there are several product characteristics that can influence the fate of a certain innovation. First, we present a brief overview of this literature.Then we shall use this as a filter to screen the literature on computer use in education. Implementation of Computers in Education 69 Well-known discourses about influential (product) characteristics of innovations are delivered by Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) who describe features like observability, complexity, compatability, and relative advantage, and by Doyle and Ponder (3977-78) who refer to the practicality ethic of teachers, with criteria like instrumentality, congruence, and cost. An authorative summary of these characteristics is provided by Fullan (1982; see also Fullan et al. , 1987).He mentions the following characteristics, elucidated by some central questi ons: Need and relevance What is the need for and the appropriateness of the change? What is the priority of the efforts to implement the innovation relative to other concerns? Clarity How clear are the goals and essential features of the innovation? practical implications for the users? Complexity How clear are the How many components of instructional practice are affected and how much do they differ from existing practices and beliefs? How difficult is it to learn the necessary changes? Quality and practicality How well developed and tested are the products?How certain is the impact of the innovation? What is the trade-off between the actual benefits and the personal and organizational costs? Weaknesses in one or more of these characteristics usually cause major obstacles for implementation. Fullan (1982, p. 62) underlines the importance of individual perceptions in this respect: â€Å"ImpIementation is a problem of individuals developing meaning in relation to specific policy or program directions. † Although materials alone can never be sufficient for the implementation of innovation proposals by broad target groups of teachers, the potential influence of materials is great.Well designed and vafidated products can contribute substantially to the realization of educational changes (Crandall and Associates, 1982; Emrick & Peterson, 1978; Van den Akker, 1988~). We proceed now with a short overview of research findings about the interaction between product characteristics and teachers in the domain of computer use. Courseware Quality and Teachers’ Problems There is a wide dissatisfaction about the quality of educational software and courseware (OTA, 1988). Some conclusions are: Much educational software is isolated material, badly attuned to the curriculum 0 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al (content, materials, strategies) in use (Inspectorate, 1986; Woodhouse & Jones, 1988). Often computer use cannot be a process of simply incorporating new into old, but i t requires reshaping what was there (Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986). But also a warning is in place: if the software closely relates to the existing curriculum, it can indeed be easier for the teachers to use, but then it is often seen as just an â€Å"extra† and not fully integrated in the day to day practice (Cox, 1987).Thus, software should either support the goals of the existing curriculum or meet the needs for a curriculum change (Mallatratt, 1988). Much software has been developed for use by individual students, not taking into account the usual whole-class teaching and the practical constraints of a classroom with limited numbers of computers (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation [CERI], 1986). This restriction places a considerable demand on the planning and management skills of teachers. Much software is poorly documented (Jorde, 1985). User guides contain mainly â€Å"technical† information about operational aspects of the software.Support (print) mate rials for the teacher with suggestions how to integrate the program in the instructional process is frequently lacking (Inspectorate, 1988). â€Å"Most software does not yet sufficiently exploit the capacity of the computer to Drill and practice software continues to enhance teaching and learning. . dominate all subject areas† (OTA, 1988, p. 122). Furthermore, much of the early generation of software can be characterized by the â€Å"Quiz Syndrome† (Mackey, 1987). An innovation which appears to bring just one long question-answer routine gets a bad name.The available educational software covers only parts of the different subject matter domains (Inspectorate, 1988); most software is just â€Å"piecemeal† (Williams & Williams, 1984). The lack of sufficient high quality materials obstructs the integration of computer use into the daily practice. Problems many teachers experience are the following: For various reasons it is difficult to select suitable software. No t only is software often poorly documented, but also many teachers lack the knowledge and skills for an effective evaluation of the software quality (Knupfer, 1986; Preece & Jones, 1985).Moreover, there are only limited possibilities to preview potentially useful software before purchase (Balla, Gow, & Burton, 1986; Mallatratt, 1988). Teachers often lack technical skills in using computers and software (CERI, 1986; Ridgway et al. , 1984). This often leads to uncertainty, especially when the level of computer familiarization of the teacher is the same as or even lower than that of the students (Carmicheal et al. , 1985; Heywood & Norman, 1988). A consequence of this phenomenon may be that educational computing will be restricted to the limited level of expertise of the teacher.Teachers often experience unanticipated problems with their instructional roles (Carmicheal et al. , 1985; Cuban, 1986; Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986; Wiske et al. , 1988). Computers challenge teachers’ exis ting instructional routines by requiring a shift from expository teaching towards a role in which the teacher is more of a partner and guide of the students. Many teachers feel uncomfortable about these changes and therefore try to minimize them (Elder, Gourlay, Johnstone, & Wills, 1987; Olson, 1988; Plomp, Steerneman, & Pelgrum, 1988). This factor is particularly Implementation f Computers in Education 71 – important because research has shown that the way a teacher integrates computer use through his ongoing instructional decisions is critical to the impact of computer use on learners and learning results (Wilson, 1988). Cox et al. (1988) observe that teachers frequently lack knowledge and skills for effective stimulation of students’ microcomputer activities, and thus children fail to learn what they might learn with judicious teacher intervention. Teachers experience many practical problems when they start to use computers (Carmicheal et al. 1985; Elder et al. , 19 87; Inspectorate, 1986). Computer use demands from teachers many time-consuming management and organizational activities. Wiske et al. (1988) conclude that the major barrier for computer use is that it is unclear for teachers how the potential contribution of computer use can outweigh the costs involved. In summary we may conclude that the research on the integration of computer applications in education reveals many similar problems as described in the literature on curriculum implementation (cf. Fullan et al. 1987). Most factors that influence curriculum implementation also influence the integration of computer use in the instructional practice. An Infusion Approach for the Integration of Computer Use In this section we will try to identify elements of an effective strategy for the integration of computer use in education by analogy reasoning with approaches of effective curriculum implementation. Most teachers, if they are using computers at all, are still inexperienced users; th e great majority are in the initial implementation phase.In this stage small-scale successful experiences are an important factor in stimulating the use of the innovation by teachers, both in the field of curriculum implementation (Van den Akker, 1988b) and computer integration (Fullan et al. , 1987). There are two components of successful experiences: first, the students attain clear learning results; second, the teacher succeeds in an effective lesson execution without major problems, and is aware of his own contribution in this respect.Such successful experiences can only take place when teachers have high quality courseware at their disposal. We define courseware as: a package comprising computer software and (mostly written) support materials. Since our analysis of implementation problems indicated that especially the support materials – if available – are of a poor quality, we shall focus on that component (â€Å"lessonware†) of the courseware.In order to identify â€Å"high quality† characteristics, we need to clarify what functions the materials should have for the teacher. Functions and Characteristics of Courseware As shown in the previous sections, integration of computer use by teachers is complex and involves them in learning new roles and unlearning old ones. Implementation can be 72 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. conceived as a learning process for the teacher in which changes are required in teaching behavior as well as in beliefs, attitudes and understanding.A literature review of Van den Akker (1988b, c) on curriculum implementation, teacher planning, and general learning theories provides some answers to the question of how materials can contribute to this learning process of teachers in their initial implementation phase. The literature on curriculum implementation reveals that in teachers’ initial implementation efforts personal self-concerns dominate, changing via more task-oriented concerns to concerns about t he impact of the curriculum on learners (Loucks & Lieberman, 1983).Research indicates that this change model also applies on computer integration (Cicchelli & Beacher, 1985, 1987; Wiske et al. , 1988). Thus, at present, where most teachers are still in the initiation phase where personal survival concerns dominate, courseware materials should support the teachers by anticipating as much as possible potential user problems and by offering practical advice to prevent or solve such problems.From research on teacher planning (Clark & Peterson, 1986) it has become more evident that changing the practice of teaching requires more attention to the stage of pre-active planning. The lesson planning approach is of crucial importance for the lesson execution, and, ultimately, also for learning-by-reflection of the teacher afterwards. Literature on general learning theories indicates that (intensive) orienting activities yield more precise and reasoned plans for action.Courseware may activate a nd support teacher planning by providing a clear orientation to the teaching task, by pointing to critical features of (computer assisted) lessons and by making suggestions about how to deal with emergent problems during the instructional process. From this analysis we may conclude that courseware, intended for teachers’ initial use, should contain a large amount of procedural specifications: very accurate how-to-do-it advice focused on essential but apparently vulnerable elements of the curriculum.This means that the support materials should not only contain â€Å"technical† information about the use of the computer program, but also detailed advice about the instructional process (cf. Fullan et af. , 1987). With the help of such materials, the teachers should be stimulated to a task orientation and to concrete role-taking experiences and should be supported with practical advice for successful lessons. In order to produce such courseware, one has to follow a very car eful development approach, with much attention for formative evaluation and revision of the materials.Obviously, the technical certainty of the software must be guaranteed and the program should be easy to use (Fullan et al. , 1987). Special efforts have to be made to detect teachers’ problems with the use of the courseware in their classroom situation. These evaluation findings should lead to the incorporation of procedural suggestions for the teachers in the support materials about how to prevent or solve such problems. It seems desirable that the development of the software and the support materials (â€Å"lessonware†) proceeds in close interaction.More or less simultaneous design, construction and evaluation activities can further the interwoveness of the different courseware components. Such an approach may also increase the chances to produce courseware that is innovative from an instructional and curricular perspective (cf. Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986). Implementa tion of Computers in Education 73 An Illustrative Study An explorative study along these lines has been done by Keursten (1988), who developed courseware for primary science.He pointed out that there is a remarkable resemblance between major implementation problems of teachers with a new approach in (activity-based) science education and the earlier discussed problems with the integration of computer use. Van den Akker (1988a, b) mentioned the following key problems for teachers in the science domain: complex and time-consuming lesson preparation; a lack of background knowledge and skills (causing a lack of self-confidence); great difficulties in changing the didactical role; insufficient view of possible learning outcomes.In the research project of Van den Akker (1988a, b), a successful effort was made to diminish these problems by providing teachers with many, carefully tested procedural specifications in curriculum materials. Keursten (1988) applied the same sort of specification s in courseware for a series of seven lessons (on the theme â€Å"weather†; final grade of primary school), to be used by teachers who had neither experience with computer use nor with an activity-based science approach.The courseware package consisted of: written lesson materials containing subject matter information and directions for lesson preparation and execution; educational software with a very succinct manual about its operation; and some student materials. The procedural specifications for the package were divided over the written lesson materials (â€Å"lessonware†) and the software manual. In the â€Å"lessonware† the following categories were incorporated: i general characterization of the series of lessons in terms of objectives, content, time (also division of time over different lessons), suggestions for detecting learning effects. ackground information about the subject matter so that it is not necessary for the teacher to refer to other sources during the lesson preparation. Per lesson were included: a short outline of the lesson; suggestions for the lesson preparation, including issues like: necessary learning aids, classroom organization, structure of the lesson in keywords, personal preparation by the teacher. guidelines for lesson execution with suggestions for instructional activities, for classroom organization, and for guidance of the students.The manual of the computer program consisted of: directions for the use of the computer (especially important for teachers without experience with computers); description of the objectives (short, because it is also part of the written lesson materials); directions for the use of software (important, as it must answer all possible questions teachers may have in using the program); points of attention about the siting of the computer(s). – – – – 74 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. Two basic elements in the design approach should be underlined.First, the curr icular perspective was in the forefront; the computer software was developed as a tool for realizing the formulated curriculum aims. Second, the primary focus in the elaboration of the materials was on the tasks and user problems of the teachers – and not on the possibilities of the software. An evaluation of the use of this courseware with five teachers had positive results. The teachers were able to use the package as meant by the designers. They hardly experienced any technical problems and adequately realized the activity-based science approach.Also the reactions and learning outcomes of the students were very satisfying. A general conclusion of this study was that the characteristics of the courseware seem very appropriate to reduce implementation problems. Therefore follow-up research has been started for further investigation of this approach. Conclusion The integration of computer use in the instructional practice of teachers â€Å"infusable† support materials (cf. Wilson, 1988). We would like to summarize our infusion approach as follows: benefits by eachers can start their computer use with short and well organized applications; successful use is strongly advanced by carefully designed and validated procedural specifications in the different courseware components; based on these successful experiences, teachers acquire clarity about the meaning and potential of the innovation, gain confidence in their own competence, and develop their own view of the appropriateness of the innovation for their students and themselves. Without such early â€Å"high quality† experiences, teachers’ judgments about the relevance and practicality of computer use can only be superficial.As Wiske et al. (1988) found, the initial reservations of teachers about computer use diminish after experiencing examples of computer use that yield clear educational benefits. A real integration of computer use in the curriculum can only be realized when teache rs recognize the surplus value of computer use. Successes in the early implementation phase are crucial for motivating teachers to further activities and to elicit commitment to the change efforts. We have strongly concentrated our arguments on the role of products (courseware) in the process of implementation.Of course we realize – see the first part of our article – that there are many other variables at stake. But we agree with Collis (1988) that it makes sense to focus on those variables which are relatively easy to manipulate. And, within the then available options, we have strong indications that a sophisticated design of the support materials within courseware can have a great impact on implementation activities and outcomes. 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Williams, F. , & Williams, V. (1984). Microcomputers in elementary education; Per. spectives on impl’ementation. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.Wilson, B. (1988). faking sense of the future. A position puper on the role of technology jn science, mathematics, and computing education. Cambridge, MA: Educational Technology Center, Harvard Graduate School of Education. Wiske, M. S. , Zodhiates, Ph. , Wilson. B. , Gordon, M. , Harvey, W. , Krensky, L. , Lord, B. , Watt, M. , & Williams, K. (1988). How technology affects teaching. Cambridge, MA: E ducational Technology Center, Harvard Graduate School of Education. Woodhouse, D. , & Jones, A. .I. (1988). Integrating CAL with other instructional activities in schools. Computers and Education. 12 (3), 381-389.

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Introduction: Advertising is a form of communication used to encourage or persuade an audience to continue or take some new action. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behaviour with respect to a commercial offering, although political & ideological advertising is also common. The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful.Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspapers; magazines; television commercials, radio advertising, outdoor advertising or direct mail or new media such as blogs, website or text messages. Definition: Advertising is bringing a product(or service) to the attention of potential & current customers. Advertisement is typically done with signs, brochures, commercial, direct mailings or e-mail messages, personal contact etc. The importance of advertising is â€Å"steadily on the increase in mod ern society†.Just as the media of social communication themselves have enormous influence everywhere so advertisement using media as its vehicle, is a pervasive, powerful force shaping attitudes & behaviour in today’s world. The field of advertising is extremely broad & diverse. In general terms, of course an advertisement is simply public notice meant to convey information & invite patronage or some other response. As that suggest, advertising has two main purposes: To inform & To persuade. These purposes are distinguishable-both are very often simultaneously present Objectives of the study: To study the effectiveness of advertisement of mobile phones. * To analyze & compare the consumers attitude towards advertisement regarding mobile phones. * To know the buying behaviour of the consumers with regard to the advertisement. * To show the true values of the advertisement regarding mobile phones. Statement of the problem: The effectiveness of advertisement which plays a crucial role to identify the target customers and the target market segment for every companies & firms. It is worth noted that, the effectiveness of dvertisement should thoroughly scrutinized by every organisation. Thus there are various issues involved in the advertisement & measurement of its effectiveness. The problem here is how many consumers buy mobile phones by seeing advertisements? Is advertisement really motivating the public to buy the product? The study relates with the influence of the advertisement towards them the researcher has the curiosity to know about how advertisement effect through various brands of mobile phones. Scope of the study: Theme is the subject matter of advertisement.An advertisement copy should bridge the gap between the advertisers & readers if it is to be effective. To achieve this the advertisement has to provide the audience the information that is of interest to them. Undertaken to know the effectiveness of advertisement in the minds of consum ers and also to know the factor which attracts more from it. This will help to identify the role of advertisements. The present investigation has been undertaken to know and analyse the factors influencing the mobile phones & the role of media which influences them to prefer a particular product.Methodology: The research is descriptive in nature. Both primary & secondary data have been collected for the study. Primary data were collected through questionnaire schedule from a sample of 25 respondents at the random. The secondary data was collected from magazines, books, websites. Sampling of the study: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample (i:e) the size of the sample.Sample design is determined before data are collected. Simple random sampling method is used for selecting the respondents in order to collect the required data. Sources o f data: Sources of data are mainly classified in two: Primary data & Secondary data. Primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time & thus happen to be original in character. The primary data was collected using a structured questionnaire prepared with respect to the objective of the study.Simply primary data refers to the information got directly from the sampled respondents. Secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. The secondary data are based on the documents available in the form of: Books Journals Published papers Internet Data Analysis and Statistical tools: The data collected were analysed and tabulations were made regarding the responses given by the respondents.No statistical tools were used in this project to measure the effectiveness of advertisements. Limitations of the study: 1) Sample size is small as compare to universe. 2) Respondents are b iased towards their personal preferences and they might have not answered the questions correctly. 3) Due to simple random sampling there may be large deviation from that of universe. Chapter Scheme: Chapter 1: Introduction, objectives, statement of the problem, scope of the study, methodology, limitations of the study.Chapter 2: Contents and review of literature. Chapter 3: Company profile. Chapter 4: Data analysis and Interpretations Chapter 5: Findings, suggestions and conclusions Contents & Review of Literature: Meaning of Advertising: The word advertising is derived from the latin word,†advertero†. â€Å"Ad† meaning towards and â€Å"verto† meaning â€Å"to turn†. Definitions of Advertising: Philip Kolter says â€Å"Advertising is ant paid form of non-personal presentation of ideas, goods and services by an identified sponsor. † William J.Stanton,†Advertising consists of all the activities in presenting to a group a non-personal, or al or visual, openly sponsored message regarding a product, service or idea. † Features of Advertising: * Advertising is one of the methods of promotion mix. * It is a paid mass communication, not aiming at a specific individual. * It is a form of publicity, i. e dissemination of information regarding a product, service or idea. * It is salesmanship in writing or printed salesmanship. * It is a mass non-personal communication. Functions

Analyzing Little Red Riding Hood

For danger, violence, and even death can come disguised in familiar things as the theme in â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood† suggests. There are several literary elements that contribute to the theme of the story of â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood†. I will analyze these elements as I have interpreted them. Perrault uses omniscient point of view to tell this story. This is observed in the first sentence of the first paragraph, â€Å"Once upon a time there lived in a certain village a little country girl, the prettiest creature who was ever seen† (as cited in Clugston, 2010, section 4. 1, para. 1). Omniscient point of view simply means that the reader is privy to every characters inner thoughts and feelings; in addition it allows the reader to go in and out of each character thoughts throughout the story. In this short story the reader gets the thoughts and feelings of both Little Red and the wolf. The tone of â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood† is a message to teach the danger in talking to or trusting strangers. For many strangers cannot and should not be trusted. That evil does exist and it has many faces, even familiar faces. The setting of this story is a medieval village on the edge of a large dark forest. Which today could be a lovely suburb on the edge of a huge unfriendly dark city? This story has five characters in it; however, the story focuses on the young woman wearing a red-hooded cape, the wolf, and their encounter, â€Å"As she was going through the wood, she met with a wolf, who had a very great mind to eat her up, but he dared not, because of some woodcutters working nearby in the forest. He asked her where she was going. The poor child, who did ot know that it was dangerous to stay and talk to a wolf, said to him, â€Å"I am going to see my grandmother and carry her a cake and a little pot of butter from my mother† (as cited in Clugston, 2010, section 4. 1, para. 4). In reading â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood†, my interpretation of the symbolism is based on things in the 21st century. In my mind, I see Red not as a little girl but as a young woman just coming of age. She is very beautiful and quite desirable. The wolf is not a four-legged animal but a two-legged man with bad morals and evil thoughts. There are various kinds of wolves. There are those who are charming, quiet, polite, unassuming, complacent, and sweet who pursue young woman at home and in the street. And unfortunately, it is these gentle wolves who are the most dangerous ones of all. Whereas, Red still thinks with a pure, loving, and trusting heart and mind as do many young females do today? In addition, where it say the wolf eats Red, â€Å"And, saying these words, this wicked wolf fell upon Little Red Riding Hood, and ate her all up (as cited in Clugston, 2010, section 4. 1, para. 27). The wolf does not actually eat Red but rapes and violates her stealing her innocence from her forever. The plot of the story contributes to the theme of the story by telling us of the dangers of talking to strangers. We all need to beware of our surroundings and to be so very careful in speaking to strangers, for danger, violence, loss of innocence, and even death can come disguised in things and people that are very familiar to us. References Clugston, R. W. , (2010). Journey into Literature. Retrieved from: http://content. ashford. edu/books/AUENG125. 10. 2? sections=sec4. 1 Analyzing Little Red Riding Hood For danger, violence, and even death can come disguised in familiar things as the theme in â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood† suggests. There are several literary elements that contribute to the theme of the story of â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood†. I will analyze these elements as I have interpreted them. Perrault uses omniscient point of view to tell this story. This is observed in the first sentence of the first paragraph, â€Å"Once upon a time there lived in a certain village a little country girl, the prettiest creature who was ever seen† (as cited in Clugston, 2010, section 4. 1, para. 1). Omniscient point of view simply means that the reader is privy to every characters inner thoughts and feelings; in addition it allows the reader to go in and out of each character thoughts throughout the story. In this short story the reader gets the thoughts and feelings of both Little Red and the wolf. The tone of â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood† is a message to teach the danger in talking to or trusting strangers. For many strangers cannot and should not be trusted. That evil does exist and it has many faces, even familiar faces. The setting of this story is a medieval village on the edge of a large dark forest. Which today could be a lovely suburb on the edge of a huge unfriendly dark city? This story has five characters in it; however, the story focuses on the young woman wearing a red-hooded cape, the wolf, and their encounter, â€Å"As she was going through the wood, she met with a wolf, who had a very great mind to eat her up, but he dared not, because of some woodcutters working nearby in the forest. He asked her where she was going. The poor child, who did ot know that it was dangerous to stay and talk to a wolf, said to him, â€Å"I am going to see my grandmother and carry her a cake and a little pot of butter from my mother† (as cited in Clugston, 2010, section 4. 1, para. 4). In reading â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood†, my interpretation of the symbolism is based on things in the 21st century. In my mind, I see Red not as a little girl but as a young woman just coming of age. She is very beautiful and quite desirable. The wolf is not a four-legged animal but a two-legged man with bad morals and evil thoughts. There are various kinds of wolves. There are those who are charming, quiet, polite, unassuming, complacent, and sweet who pursue young woman at home and in the street. And unfortunately, it is these gentle wolves who are the most dangerous ones of all. Whereas, Red still thinks with a pure, loving, and trusting heart and mind as do many young females do today? In addition, where it say the wolf eats Red, â€Å"And, saying these words, this wicked wolf fell upon Little Red Riding Hood, and ate her all up (as cited in Clugston, 2010, section 4. 1, para. 27). The wolf does not actually eat Red but rapes and violates her stealing her innocence from her forever. The plot of the story contributes to the theme of the story by telling us of the dangers of talking to strangers. We all need to beware of our surroundings and to be so very careful in speaking to strangers, for danger, violence, loss of innocence, and even death can come disguised in things and people that are very familiar to us. References Clugston, R. W. , (2010). Journey into Literature. Retrieved from: http://content. ashford. edu/books/AUENG125. 10. 2? sections=sec4. 1

English (rough draft ) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

English (rough draft ) - Essay Example The difference then is that I was apprehensive about being away from my parents and spend hours with other kids I hardly know. In San Diego, I did not mind being away from my folks but I also could not settle easily with the idea that I would be away from my close friends at home and be in a school I never planned to be in. This is exactly the problem, the cause of tension between me and my parents. There were other things that I can write and be introspective about. However, every time I encountered troubles with classmates, friends, and even with my studies, I could not help thinking again of the problem in my relationship with my parents. People cannot blame me if I still feel this way even if I already face the prospect of graduating soon and leaving UCSD for good. Studying in San Diego was an idea I never dared to entertain. It was my folks’ decision and although I tried explaining to them that a school within LA would be a better option, but with the sheer obstinacy characteristic of Asian parents towards their kids, they managed to send me to San Diego and finish a college degree far from my home. There was nothing I could do but comply with their wishes. It was not just because I was brought up to be fearful of parental authority. It was also because I wanted to succeed in a career too and if college education is a guarantee, I would certainly need my parents help. I would like to think that my parents sent me to UCSD simply because they want me to have the best employment opportunities in the future. It is weird, but even in a country as free as the United States an individual still has to get the best education in order for her to have the doors of better employment opened. Otherwise, the individual can just end up with a mediocre job and a corresponding unsatisfactory pay. It goes without saying though that there are hundreds of thousands who still graduate from college every school year who end up with

Greek Mythology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Greek Mythology - Essay Example The inhabitants of Olympus are not ideal characters. They are vain, mercenary, passionate. The most striking feature of Greek Gods is their envy. Gods envy plain people, and a man, who gained a success, is the first to be afraid of the Gods’ rage. Maybe, it was a way to explain the exchange of good and bad periods of life. â€Å"In general, the ancient Greeks would consider something bad in their lives as a punishment for gods. If they had a disease, they would pray to the gods to forgive his sins. If a floud would occur and destroy their city, they would make a sacrifice to calm down the gods. From this, it can be seen that there was a sense of respect and fear between people and the gods and that people didnt feel free to live their lives, but thought that everything would come or be taken away from them†(Greek Mythology). Gods are depicted as strong, dangerous creatures one should be careful with. And their human traits reflected the attitude of Greeks and Romans tow ards the world. The right way to make them pleased was to make sacrifices. However, there were people and heroes, who struggled against gods. Prometheus is a well-known who gave fire to men and went against Gods. The popularity of this myth can be explained by a fascinating plot, dynamics of events and deep ideas rooted inside the myth. A classical Greek myth about this outstanding character discusses the struggle for freedom (Price and Kearns, 2003). Another example is Odysseus, who could deceive anyone including divine creatures. He represents one of the greatest humans who is the master of his own life and is not afraid of gods. Greek gods do not appear on their own, they were born by their parents, they need to eat and drink, they get tired and go to sleep, they can’t be killed, but can be injured. At the same time the Gods are not all-powerful, they also depend on destiny like people and heroes. In Greek mythology destiny is

Choose an object that has special meaning for you. please write about( Essay

Choose an object that has special meaning for you. please write about( my mother gave me Necklace when I graduated from university in my Graduate Celebration that she made in our house - Essay Example This necklace is made of beads that are of different colors. The shape of the beads and the color attracts the attention of many people. The beads contain all the colors of the rainbow. This necklace is light in weight and makes me comfortable when wearing it. In addition, these beads are plastic in nature though from far one can think they are from a natural fabric. Sometimes I feel like whoever made this necklace had my taste in mind. This necklace represents my life struggle in my undergraduate. Additionally, it reminds me of my family mood during the graduation ceremony. We all have to know that it is good to appreciate somebody for good deed. I wanted to share this information with you to enlighten you on appreciating something even if it may look small to you. I now know you have understood my close association with this necklace. In this necklace, I cannot forget awesome memories in my

Corporate governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Corporate governance - Essay Example Many efforts were made to facilitate governance mechanisms. These are introduced by the law â€Å"relating to directors’ duties, supervision via non-executive directors, executive compensation agreements, managerial labour markets that respond to past performance, the market for corporate control, discipline exercised by creditors, and competitive product markets†. (Armour, Deakin & Konzelmann, 2003) The mutual result of the Report of Cadbury Committee (1992), the Greenbury Committee (1995) and the Hampel Committee (1997) was the Combined Code. The Code is voluntary. However companies are required to report compliance with the code or explain the reason why this compliance is not possible. The Code includes a number of principles which serve the ground for the measurement of governance practices of companies. The principles highlight the importance of non-executive directors and independent directors for supervision of executives. Other principle recommendations are separation of chairman and CEO positions with the board chairman monitoring the performance of management; functioning of audit committee with each board. (Black et.al., 1994) Along with these principles the code highlighted the importance of automatic re-election of directors at least every three years, remuneration and audit with a major role in each case for non-executive and independent directors and the disclosure to shareholders of policy concerning remuneration and of service contracts. (Armour, Deakin & Konzelmann, 2003) Committees recommendations are supported by key institutions - the Bank of England, the Confederation of British Industry, and the London Stock Exchange. That’s why the Combined Code proved to be effective in provision of high level of compliance. For example, in 1999 PIRC found that 87% of their sample of listed UK companies had separated the roles of Chairman and CEO, and 93% had

Evolution Of American Political Economy And The Economy Itself From Essay

Evolution Of American Political Economy And The Economy Itself From Approximately 1780 Through 1840 - Essay Example The constitution was like a treaty agreement. It was called a league of friendship. There was a continental congress that was composed of one chamber for ever state. The congress never had any right to create and enforce laws. This in turn caused many issues to come up between the years 1780 through 1840. For example the state of New York started to consider herself very weak since she was getting the supplies that her population used from New Jersey. After the transaction took place, the people of New Jersey took away the money of New Yorkers and built their state, New Jersey. The people of Connecticut also were giving the people in Manhattan a run for their money. They produced goods like fuel which they in turn hawked from door to another door. They made lots of money from the New Yorkers who were busy wondering where they had failed and went wrong. The Connecticut people in turn used the money from Manhattan to build their state of Connecticut. This was because the leaders of New York were tied and they could not be able to protect their citizens. New York had resources but they were not able to trade the products even in their own state because of the constitution regulations. After a while taxes were imposed in New York such that any product that was entering the state had to be taxed. This made the people of New Jersey and Connecticut to impose even higher taxes in their states for foreign products. The two states even moved on to impose taxes for land. In the drafted constitution it was stated that there was no state that was to have its own military forces. That was to be the work of the central government. But since the work of the congress were tied, and their finances were limited; they could never afford to have any military group that would guarantee the security of the United States. The congress was limited to performing several tasks that could help it run the operations of the United States. They could not afford to collect taxes from the citi zens as it was not their mandate to do so. In 1781 the central government estimated that they would need 9million dollars to run the government in the next year. The government raised 5million through contracting, they said that they would borrow 4million in order to run the government fully. But unluckily by the end of the year they had managed to pay on 400,000 dollars to the treasury. In the same year, the congress was nearly giving up for the process of consolidating the funds to help them in running their governing activities. A five percent duty was imposed on all states. And this was done by all the states except New York which refused to contribute the amount. This was then followed by New Jersey which in turn refused to pay more money claiming that she was being treated poorly. She refused to contribute until the New York government decreased the amount of taxes it had imposed on the products that were coming into the state from New Jersey. The first United States president had to raise up a country and among the first thing to do was to eliminate the warring states. The central government had to look for a way to remove the militia in all the states. This was to be done without causing any trouble and in very silent way. The central government had to have a new capital city for the nation. This is where the central government was to be run from. The only cities that were popular were Philadelphia, New York

Family Law, Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Family Law, - Essay Example Under such circumstances, the state is bound to uphold and protect family interests in its constitution, as a pre-condition for ensuring social order and preserving the sanctity of marriage bonds. The preservation and development of the institution of marriage is also intrinsic to the growth and development of the Irish State and nation. Specifically, the law acknowledges the fact that the role women play at her home is important without which common progress cannot be realised. Therefore, the common contention is that family economic burden should not perforce a woman to seek income avenues and neglect in the carrying out of household duties and child-rearing activities, particularly because this forms the nucleus of the family establishment in Ireland. The sanctity of marriage and its continuance is also a state promise in Ireland. It is now sought to consider the family under the following Articles: Article 119: Marriage is the formation of family for expansion and growth of national population and the constitution is bound to protect marriage. In it both the male and female members enjoy equal status in the eyes of law. Article 120: It is of paramount importance that the parents raise their children in the right manner, in physical, mental spiritual and social fitness and this is to a very large extent, assisted by the government policies and programmes which are conducive to family rearing. Article 121: This article gives equal status to illegal children (children born out of wedlock) as to legitimate children Article 122: The lives of young people must be protected against exploitation of any kind and they must be prevented from indulging in moral and spiritual debauchery, and not tending to their minds and bodies properly. It is also the duty of the state to take proper steps for ensuring this. The concept of a nucleus family is based on the lives of a married couple wherein the man is the head and provider of the family and the woman is the sustainer and mother figure, who takes care of the family duties and the development of the physical, intellectual, spiritual and moral aspects of the children. Lifelong values to be cherished and implemented are passed on from the parents to their children from generations to generations and this evolutionary process is continued. The traditional stronghold of marriage gives it a social context based on natural law, and this is further sanctified by the discouragement of divorce, and also, the social disapproval of cohabitation. The campaign against the use of contraceptive devices promotes the birth of off-springs and the continuance of the proliferation of the humans in the state. Homosexuality is also strongly disregarded in the Irish Constitution. Article 41 & 42 of the constitution has been enacted with the sole purpose of the protection of the sanctity of marriages and the family. The Irish Constitution under Section 41.3.1 validates the family as a natural unit of social life, and the state is under commitment to carefully preserve this aspect of family life. The stronghold of marriage systems of which the family is a natural outcome, needs to be protected against outside incursions. In delineating this position, the law distinctly recognises the valuable contribution made to the welfare state. It is not

Corporate Income Taxes - Client Letter Research Paper

Corporate Income Taxes - Client Letter - Research Paper Example Equity financing on the other is when a company issues shares of the company’s stock and receives money in return. Depending on the capital raised through equity, the company may relinquish about 25% to 75% of the business. The advantage of using debt to finance capital expenditure is that you will not give up control of your business. The lender who is usually a bank or lending institutions does not have any right to manage or oversee how things are run in the business. By simple means, your only obligation will be to repay the loan in regard to the agreed terms. Additionally, interest paid on the loan is tax deductible thus it could be savings in term of tax when the business is still small (Hovakimian, Opler, & Titman, 2001). There is some predictability with debt as the corporation knows exactly how much it owes. The disadvantage for this form of capital formation is that the money has to be paid within a fixed period regardless of the business success. Relying too much on debt may prove to be strenuous if the business cash flows do not balance. Potential investors may also run away as a huge debt is termed as a high risk. Loans are not just expensive, the lender might also ask for collateral which includes the business assets or personal guarantee which will put you on the hook in case the payment defaults. Equity financing on the other hand does not have to be repaid. The risks and liabilities of the company are shared between the ownership and the investors that come on board. Since no debt is being repaid, cash flows generated can be used to reinvest back into the company and promote further growth or may be to diversify to other areas of interest. Having a low debt equity ration is advantageous as it puts the company on a better position to acquire loans in future (Klein, O’Brien, & Peters, 2002). Equity investment may sound good but it also means that the corporation has to give up

Reign Over Me Evaluation Essay Example for Free

Reign Over Me Evaluation Essay Depression affects all people. Reign Over Me is a movie that deals with a character in a grave state of depression. In Charlie Fineman’s (Adam Sandler) case depression hits hard and leads to a major behavioral change. Fineman blocks out major parts of his life including his college roommate, Alan Johnson (Don Cheadle). After running into him on the street, it takes a while for this encounter to jog his memory of his best friend. We learn later that this depression is due the death of his three daughters and wife in a plane crash. The news devastates Fineman. He cannot function in society the same and loses purpose in life, as well as belief in himself. Instead of letting this distress out and working to recuperate, Fineman shuts everybody out and tries to hide from the truth. This can be a serious problem in today’s society. Many people are embarrassed or too hurt to try to move on and they let what happened dictate their individual future. In this film, directed by Mike Binder and produced by Jack Binder and Michael Rottenberg, the message of depression and its effects is relayed quite clearly. This movie relates to the real world very well; it also helps open up the eyes of many who do not understand what depression can do. Reign Over Me deals with a character who has the biggest part of his life taken from him in an instant. While others cannot tell how much Fineman is suffering by his actions, the loss of his family crushes him. Instead of mourning he falls into a deep state of denial where he almost forgets their existence. An important theme throughout is Fineman trying to fix the wrongs he did to his family, like snapping at his wife about kitchen remodeling or not taking his shoes off. Although they are just little things he makes sure nobody comes in his house with their shoes on and remodels the kitchen several times. These small acts show that he still remembers. There is a scene in the movie where Fineman opens up to Alan, his former roommate. Although he would not open up to the therapist, he tells Alan all about what happened. It was in brief but in this scene you get to see how much recalling his past hurts. Just saying his daughters’ names makes him cry. This scene demonstrates how hard it is for Fineman to talk about his life. Throughout the film, we learn little by little the events  that took place. Outsiders and even his in-laws think that he is disrespecting his deceased loved ones. They do not understand why he does not carry a picture of his family with him or even have one in his house. They take it to the point of wanting to have him committed until he finally talks to them and explains how hard it is to live each day and how hard it is to see them or anybody because he sees his family everywhere. There are many critics and naysayer to this movie as well as supporters. Most of the reviews I read really concentrated on the part played by Adam Sandler. Adam Sandler shoulders a very dramatic character in this movie and this side of him is underappreciated. He is notoriously known for his funny facial expressions and antics. This leads people to believe he can’t play a serious role but in Reign Over Me he hits a home run. The same reviews were not so critical about Don Cheadle. He played a part he is used to playing combing a normal act with the occasional funny quote or joke to keep the viewers on board. The actors play out a very realistic scenario. The ir parts are down to earth and don’t undermine or take away from the message of the movie. From my own personal judgment the movie Reign Over Me takes the viewer into a world many people don’t or won’t ever see. It combines excellent acting with a reasonable story-line that relays a meaningful message. They story is not far-fetched and is very comparable to the realities of many people today. As far as the acting is concerned, both actors play a side the viewer is not accustomed to seeing compared to other movies Adam Sandler and Don Cheadle are known for. Other movies like, Billy Madison (Adam Sandler) or Brooklyn’s Finest (Don Cheadle), these actors have very different parts. This movie shows the talent in each of the individual actors. Both actors play off each other during the movie which takes much skill and created a wholesome and tasteful production. Many scenes are not verbatim and the skill of the actors to improvise makes for an entertaining movie watching experience for the audience. I personally recommend this film to anybody from young adults to the elderly and all of the above. Reign Over Me doesn’t only tell a story but will also tug the heart of the audience in a serious and dramatic rollercoaster ride. The movie may have many critics but I think both actors did a wonderful job throughout the film keeping the audience entertained for the entire two hours and forty minute movie. The debate is on! Go watch the movie today  and take into consideration the many sides and create your own opinion. Works Cited Internet Source – O., Scott. Who Else but an Old Buddy Can Tell How Lost You Are?. New York Times 23 Mar 2007. 1. 2/9/11 . Movie – Reign Over Me. DVD. Sony Pictures UK, 2007.

Mental Models About a Persons World Essay Example for Free

Mental Models About a Persons World Essay INTRODUCTION: Meeting a person for the first time, can either be a positive or negative experience and the way someone interacts with this person can also show both positive and negative behaviours. So the question is, how can mental models about a persons world, both aid them and also limit their perceptions when meeting a person for the first time. Through exploring how and why these perceptions can be assisted and limited, we can start to question the reasoning behind our mental models. MENTAL MODELS Throughout the years, academic literature has defined a mental model in many ways, however the best way to understand what a mental model is, is the deeply imbedded ways of thinking or even certain images, that trigger assumptions and generalisations, ultimately affecting the way a person responds too or behaves in the world, be it towards a person or a life situation (Senge 2006). A good example of a mental model is, the generalization that only rich people live in the eastern suburbs of Sydney. This generalisation may be true in some cases, but in other cases, other people may live there because they have lived their all their lives, and so, we can see this particular generalisation or mental model has not be thought through. Not questioning mental models, can often lead to false generalisations, this situation can also arise when meeting a person for the first time. When meeting a person for the first time, our mental models can help us both understand and ultimately get along with the person or they can limit our perceptions, meaning we make assumptions or generalisations that eventually alter our perceptions about this person or how we act towards them. Very often, we see that we are not consciously aware of our mental models and the affects that they can have on our behaviour (Chermack 2003), this in turn, restricts our perceptions. Mental models are often vague, incomplete and imprecisely expressed (Karp 2005) however, once believed, mental models are extremely difficult to change (Chermack 2003). This is highly due to the  fact that people are unaware of their own mental models, and the only way for a person to change their mental model, is for them to acknowledge that they have one to start with. Mental models can be useful as they can help us to process information and make decisions quickly (Unknown 1997) and they can also be imperative foundations for building knowledge about the world we live in (Karp 2005). For instance, when an individual has a mental model that all take away food is bad for their health and wellbeing, when given the option of either having take away food or a healthy meal at home, the individuals mental model will therefore lead them to quickly decide to eat a healthy meal at home. However, very strong mental models can hinder active thinking and the acceptance of new ideas (Unknown 1997), and often arise problems when they are tacit, meaning that they are below the level of awareness (Senge 1992). Using the example of the Detroit auto maker, not recognising that they had the mental model that all that customers cared about was styling, believing that all people care about is styling, evidently shows us that their mental model had become tacit. This mental model continued to be unexamined, and because this mental model remained unexamined, the model remained unchanged, and thus as the world changed the gap grew between the mental model of this Detroit automaker and the world (Senge 1992). Clearly, mental models can perform as filters that screen incoming information that come to us, limiting our ways of thinking and also our perceptions (Unknown 1997). An individuals mental model represents their view on the world, it also provides them with the context in which they view and interpret new material and also new people in which they meet for the first time (Kim 1993). It not only helps us to make sense of what is going on around us, but it can also restrict our understanding of a certain situation. For example, when someone has been labeled as not a nice person, with never questioning the validity of it, people create a mental model that, that person is not nice, and so when they do or say something nice it goes unnoticed, and therefore, the behaviour does not fit with the mental model people have towards this  certain individual. These untested assumptions or mental models can eventually cause conflict and misunderstandings between people. Developing skills in reflection and inquiry can aid us in realising our mental models and also with dealing with others. When we use skills of reflection we slow down our ways of thinking and acknowledge how our mental models are formed and how they affect our behaviour. Where as skills of inquiry, is concerned with how we operate in face-to-face situations with others, especially when we are dealing with complex and conflictual issues (Senge 2006). Together with the tools and methods used to develop these skills these constitute the core of the discipline of mental models, which consists of; the distinctions between espoused theories and theories-in-use, recognising leaps of abstraction, exposing the left-hand column and balancing inquiry and advocacy (Senge 2006). When an individual says that they value or desire something, that is known as espoused theory, however, what they actually say or do, is known as theories-in-use (Bocham 2010). Acknowledging the gaps between what we say and what we do, can be seen as an effective reflective skill in becoming more aware of our mental models. Someone may profess their view (espoused theory) that people generally are trustworthy, but their actions (theories-in-use) show differently, as they never lend out money and keep their possessions to themselves (Senge 2006). As evident in the example above, there is a gap between the individuals espoused theory and their theory-in-use. By recognising the gap between espoused theory and the theory-in-use, learning can occur, as we as individuals question whether or not we really value our espoused theory (Senge 2006). When we meet a person for the first time, we can quickly jump into generalisations as we never think to question them. For example, when we meet a person and they say that they are a doctor, we automatically assume that they are smart, as it is a generalization that all doctors are smart we never seem to question this mental model. These are known as leaps of abstraction. Leaps of abstraction occur when we move from direct observations to generalisations without questioning them, this ultimately  impedes learning because it becomes axiomatic, as what was once an assumption is now treated as a fact (Senge 2006). Therefore, this becomes another limitation, in which mental models can have on our perceptions when we meet people for the first time. However, these leaps of abstraction can easily be identified when people ask what their generalisation is based-on and whether or not the generalisation is inaccurate or misleading (Senge 2006) Senge (2006) identifies the left-hand column as a powerful technique whereby individuals begin to see how their mental models operate in differing situations. This exercise can show individuals that they indeed have mental models and show them how those models play an active part in sometimes negative interactions with people, not only do these people become aware of their mental models, but they begin to acknowledge why dealing with these assumptions is imperative (Senge 2006). In order for good communication between individuals to arise, people need to recognise that in order for the communication process to be effective, mental models must be managed properly, this is done by balancing advocacy and inquiry (Peggy Bronn 2003). Advocacy is the process of communicating an individuals ways of thinking and reasoning in a manner that makes it clear for others (Peggy Bronn 2003). When there is advocacy without inquiry, it only leads to more advocacy, and therefore leads to two individuals stating their ways of reasoning and thinking, they both are keen to here the others views, but do not inquire into what they are saying because they believe that what they are saying is ultimately the best way of thinking. A way to tackle this, is through the process of inquiry. Inquiry engages two individuals into the communication process in a joint learning process (Peggy Bronn 2003). Here the objective is to understand the reasoning and thinking of the other individual, this can be done by asking them questions in order for them to determine the origin for their conclusions and statements (Peggy Bronn 2003). Individuals can do this by asking questions such as; What is it that leads you to that position? and can you illustrate your point for me? (Senge 2006). Thus, it is evident  that grasping the skill of balancing advocacy and inquiry, is highly advantageous in interacting with other individuals, especially those you meet for the first time. CONCLUSION: Therefore, it is imperative and highly advantageous for us to question our mental models in everyday situations, such as meeting people for the first time, as it will deter us from automatically making assumptions and making generalisations. Through acknowledging leaps of abstraction, using the left-hand column technique and also personally mastering the skill of balancing advocacy and inquiry, we can learn to question these mental models, and thus questioning whether or not they really do hold their value in our world. Thus, when we meet a person for the first time, before we make assumptions and generalisations, we may need to recognise our imbedded mental models and learn to question them, therefore aiding the process of communication to be a positive experience. REFERENCE LIST: Bochman, DJ Kroth, M. 2010, Immunity to transformational learning and change, _The Learning Organization,_ vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 328-342. Chermack, TJ 2003, Mental models in decision making and implications for human resource development, _Advances in Developing Human Resources,_ vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 408-422. Karp, T 2005, Unpacking the Mysteries of Change: Mental Modelling, _Journal of Change Management,_ vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 87-96. Kim, DH 1993, The Link Between Individual and Organizational Learning, _Sloan management review,_ vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 37-37. Peggy, SB Bronn, C 2003, A reflective stakeholder approach: Co-orientation as a basis for communication learning, _Journal of Communication Management,_ vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 291-303. Senge, P 2006, Mental Models, _The fifth discipline: the art and practice of learning organizations,_ rev. edn, Doubleday, New York, pp. 163-190. Senge, PM 1992, Mental Models, _Planning Review,_ vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 4-4. Unknown 1997, What are Mental Models?, _Sloan management review,_ vol. 38, no. 3, p. 13.

Community Development Challenges

Community Development Challenges 1. Introduction The concept of community development, an accepted and much lauded mechanism for interventionist and participative social development grew out of the many strange ironies of empire building. The British, after infiltrating and achieving political domination over the Indian sub continent and vast tracts of Africa, and thereafter ensuring the decimation of local trade, industry, handicrafts and self government initiatives, made its officers busy with action plans and initiatives to develop and empower communities in these nations at the local level. Nobody in the British establishment presumably thought of the need to find out from the benefiting (sic) community whether they wanted either the destruction and bondage, or the succeeding efforts to help in local development and empowerment. Notwithstanding the rather questionable beginnings of the community development effort, the concept has grown over the ages to become an established method for interventionist social development where external agencies, governmental or otherwise, initiate, encourage and help local community development efforts in numerous areas, including social and economic development, fostering a capacity for local co-operation and self-help, with the use of expertise and methods drawn from outside the local community. (Midgeley, 1995) Community development initiatives, while growing and adapting to the needs of local communities in the UK and the USA, and despite being adopted by voluntary organisations like Rotary International for world wide implementation, have also seen large scale failures in meeting its objectives, especially in the African countries. These failures, especially in areas where they were needed most, led to disillusionment, and a feeling that community development practices w ere ill founded, or based upon unworkable concepts, and should possibly be replaced with other modes of development. Nevertheless, community development efforts remain globally strong and attract many young and well-intentioned people, to work towards achievement of economic and social improvement of underprivileged or deprived communities. It becomes extremely important for community development initiators, practitioners, workers and volunteers, to understand the principles and values of community development, in order to understand its potential and limitations, the many constraints and challenges that crop up in the development process, and the likely chances of the success or failure of development initiatives. 2. Commentary Community development has been defined by an official publication of the UK government as â€Å" active participation, and if possible on the initiative of the community, but if this initiative is not forthcoming spontaneously, by the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating it in order to achieve its active and enthusiastic response to the movement. (Smith, 2006) This definition entails an inherent contradiction, namely that while community development works on the principles of local participation, initiative and self-help at the community level, it also calls for sponsorship by external, mostly governmental agencies, who see it as an avenue for implementing governmental policies at the local level. Development initiatives thus also involve a significant amount of social work, and sometimes, even activism, in regions characterised by illiteracy, backwardness, poverty, deprivation, inequality and oppression. Community development initiatives are characterised by the presence of two elements, one local, meaning the existing community, and the other, external, which is represented by governmental agencies, not for profit service organisations like the Rotary, and private foundations and corporations. British American Tobacco (BAT), for instance, sponsors significant community development programmes for tobacco growing communities in Asian and African countries, while Rotary International works on village extension and community development programmes in many nations, in which it has a presence. Non-governmental organisations, however, still need to operate with the help of the local government in many areas, thus making the involvement of the state in community development a fait accompli. The functioning of external agencies in community development involves a number of phases that commences with the localising of a community and ascertainment of its various deficiencies and needs. This initial assessment is followed by the agency entering the community, obtaining familiarity with the neighbourhood, ascertaining needs, objectives and roles, establishing contact with local people, influence makers and power centres, bringing people together, obtaining agreement on specific objectives, forming and building local organisations to improve local issues like health, education, economy and self empowerment, clarifying goals and priorities, catalysing action, helping in keeping the initiatives going, monitoring progress, and taking corrective action. At all stages external agencies need to work in a catalytic fashion, encouraging, helping, and assisting community work, while refraining. from taking on a controlling role. Empowerment, and the building and enhancement of local community capacity in various areas that help in development should be the main objectives, as opposed to achieving results through direct control of the development process. (Henderson and Thomas, 2001) Community development activity can be general or specialised. Generic work takes place in a geographically demarcated area, takes up all the issues that lead to social and economic disadvantage, and works out participative programmes to alleviate or eliminate them. The context can be either urban or rural. While rural development has gained ground in recent years and is attracting more funds, community development is an equally critical requirement in the slums and underbellies of the world’s metropolises, which continue to be haunted by gang overlords, prostitution, substance abuse, and domestic violence, as well as lack of educational facilities and poor housing. Specialised community work deals with specific groups within a region, namely issues like homelessness, unemployment, child prostitution, substance abuse or ethic issues, or with identified issues like transportation, housing, public health or sanitation. (Hickey and Mohan, 2004) A USDA publication states that commu nity development initiatives are best achieved through the creation of business initiatives, sustainable community development, community-based partnerships and building and initiating long-term strategic plans. (Key principles of community empowerment, 2002) This complex situation demands great understanding, perception and ability from community development workers. These committed men and women are expected to handle a myriad functions that include identifying community issues, needs and problems, developing new community based programmes and resources, and evaluating and mentoring existing programmes. They also need to be outgoing, possess excellent communication skills, and be able to empathise with members of the local community, qualities that help in obtaining cooperation and help from government bodies, community organisations, and various sponsors, as well as in raising public awareness on relevant issues. Community development practitioners are also expected to provide leadership, co-ordinate programmes, facilitate and promote community self help, encourage and increase local participation, and challenge inappropriate political and social structures. Administratively, their functions entail formulation, development and finalisa tion of strategies, recruitment, motivation and training paid and voluntary workers, networking extensively to build contacts and raise funds, liaising with interested voluntary groups to build new programmes and services, mediating and negotiating with opposing parties, planning, attending and co-ordinating meetings and events, overseeing, optimising and administering limited budgets, preparing reports, and carrying out other required administrative tasks. (Community development worker, 2007) 3. Conclusion Community development demands enormous integrity, stamina, maturity and compassion from practitioners, workers and volunteers. The inherent difficulties in working in alien locations in non-structured working environments and inherently dynamic and changing conditions pose significant challenges. In addition, the inherent contradictions of being human catalysts for social change in foreign environments, of being change agents, at once part and yet distinct from the community, instil feelings of inadequacy, and sometimes even rejection, in communities where intervention may not be welcomed by significantly substantial members of the community. Community development projects aim to unearth local problems, resource limitations, and unsatisfied needs, and work towards their objectives through local participation and empowerment. Yet community participation often fails, once the operating agency withdraws, and much of the gains of community development are lost in the following years. Most agencies working in community development, e.g. the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and Rotary International, as well as governmental and private agencies feel this to be a major problem. Situations like this, as well as apprehensions of development of such situations, result in implementing agencies having to stay on in particular communities or with specific projects, much after their need has diminished, and their services and skills required elsewhere. (Bhattacharya, 2004) This often happens because of confusion in community development objectives and the undertaking of roles, in excess of actual needs, by development agencies. This factor, when combined with the role assumed by development agencies in mobilising funds, often results in producing feelings of inadequacy and helplessness in the community. It strengthens attitudes that magnify community problems, link the success of programmes with the expertise, infrastructure, and fund mobilising ability of the agencies, and works towards disempowering the members of the community, instead of increasing their capacity to address their problems. This overstretching by development workers establishes and ingrains a sense of reliance of the community on the agency, which consequently tends to negate the essence of the development programme. Development practitioners need to understand the delicacy of their roles and the thin line that they must necessarily tread upon if the community is to become truly emp owered. A greater appreciation of the necessity for producing change agents in the local community, rather than donning the mantle themselves for perpetuity, and the need for engaging local people, so that they can help communities create a common dream of a fair and sustainable future, becomes extremely important for the long-term success of community development programmes. Community development practitioners play extremely important roles in today’s grossly inequitable society, and with their grass root developmental programmes, have been instrumental in improving lives across the globe. A better appreciation of the values and principles of community development will possibly help them in improving the results of their efforts. Bibliography Ben-Meir, J.,2006, March/April, Win the War of Ideas through Community Development. The Humanist, 66, 5+. Bhattacharyya, J., 2004, Theorizing Community Development. Journal of the Community Development Society, 34(2), 5+. Community development worker: job description and activities, 2007, Prospects.ac, Retrieved April 14 from www.prospects.ac.uk/links/CommWorker Denise, P. S. Harris, I. M. (Eds.), 1989, Experiential Education for Community Development. New York: Greenwood Press. Dube, S. C., 1958, Indias Changing Villages: Human Factors in Community Development. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Hamilton, E., 1992, Adult Education for Community Development. New York: Greenwood Press. Henderson, P. and Thomas, D. N., 2001, Skills in Neighbourhood Work 3e, London: Routledge Oliver, G., 2000, August, Gentrification Threatens Community Development Groups. Planning, 66, 29. Key principles of community empowerment, 2002, Rural empowerment programs, Retrieved April 14, 2007 from www.ezec.gov/Communit/rurempowprogguide.pdf Midgley, J., 1995, Social Development, The developmental perspective in social welfare, London: Sage. Popple, K., 1995, Analysing Community Work. Its theory and practice, Buckingham: Open University Press Smith, M, 2006, Community Development, Infed, Retrieved April 14, 2007 from www.infed.org/community/b-comdv.htm

What I did While Your Children Attended High School Essay -- Personal

What I did While Your Children Attended High School    My education began formally, with lunch boxes and purple ditto sheets. I was set free when I was seven -- not just from the school building, but from the notion that I could learn only what was given me to learn, when the powers-that-were deemed I should learn it. Since then, I have been the power-that-is, designing my schooling around my own interests. (The audience is much more receptive this way). That's not to say I've avoided subjects crucial to a well-rounded education, but if I wanted to spend six months studying the Arthurian cycle, I did; and if I wanted to race through algebra as fast as my calculator could compute, I did that, too. I did not take tests, I did not receive grades, I did not whittle down what I was studying until it fit into a traditional subject offered in high school.    Most colleges use high school transcripts to see what prospective students have been doing the last four years of their lives. Here is what I've been doing:    As a volunteer for the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, I worked initially in areas normally staffed by teens, but quickly moved to temporary-exhibit galleries, where touring exhibits from across the nation are featured. I've been involved in several special projects, including building exhibits for area libraries. I co-chaired the advisory committee, which oversees and guides the teen volunteer program. I also served on the activity committee, where I helped put together museum tours (Fort Worth has a unique concentration of museums, with four in a one mile radius), lock-ins, and trips to Shakespeare in the Park. Though I am now a graduate of the program, I still attend meetings as an advi... ...in the workshops was much more valuable than the contacts I made, though they, too, are sure to serve me throughout my life.    Meanwhile, I took theater classes (Shakespeare, Commedia dell'Arte, and Greek tragedy studies) and performed in several productions, including A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Best Christmas Pageant Ever. My behind-the-scenes work includes properties management and soundboard operation.    I also worked with my father this summer in his furniture shop. Though I'd collaborated with him often on furniture designs and drawn many of the projected finished pieces for customers, I'd never been a part of the actual production before. My months with him were mind-expanding and helped me develop a concept of art in multiple dimensions.    . . . And everyone said I'd be missing so much if I didn't attend high school.   

Organizational Behavior Terms and Concepts Essay -- essays research pa

Organizational Behavior Terms and Concepts Summary Organizational behavior is a key concept which managers need to fully understand to have a successful department and organization. Along with the having a good repose with employees; managers need to have an understanding of the environment and goals of the organization he or she works in. Since companies are now growing into a more global organization, the need for proper communication is necessary for managers in order for the organization to understand the diverse culture within the company. Managers today have to either take charge or become leaders or he or she may not advance to the next level in management. Essay   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With corporate organization’s growing to a more global market; managers have to change the way they view his or her organization. There are more assets for manger’s to help aid them in continuing to allow the organization grow. Some of the tools which a manger may use is learning how to evaluate organizational behavior, organizational culture, and organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Communication has become ever more relevant with the ever growing diversity within organizations. All of these tools need to be understood and analyzed which requires for managers and organizations to observe organizational learning. This paper will discuss how these concepts and terms come into play with every organization in today’s ever changing work environment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When a manger first takes on the role of supervising a department; he or she must first study the human behavior in the organization. This process is known as organizational behavior. Organizational behavior is defined as the study of human behavior in organizations. It is a multidisciplinary field devoted to understanding individual and group behavior, interpersonal processes, and organizational dynamics (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn, 2005, ch.1,p. 3). While knowing the background of employees will help a manger better understand the knowledge an employee has; the study of organizational behavior will allow for managers to have a more precise outlook where the department may be heading. It has been my experience that organizational behavior has been a valuable tool when assigning service technicians to customers. My company (FMC) has a large global client base and requires that the service technicians who ar... ...ent travel overseas or offshore to platforms email is the most common form of communication. We use an email read verification icon to confirm that an employee has read his or her email. When the listed above concepts are fully understood and put into place it can be used to measure the organizational effectiveness or efficiency. Organizational effectiveness allows for company’s to consider short-term and longer-term performance results. It is used to assess the goals and productivity of an organization which are using the organizational behavior tools and procedures. My company uses annual reviews of each of its employees where his or her last review’s goals and accomplishments are reviewed. The second phase of the annual review is to set goals and tasks that need to be completed during the next calendar year. A time line is then written out to give both the employee and the supervisor a realistic time in which the goals will be completed. This is one of the ways that my company uses a organizational effectiveness platform.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reference Schermerhorn, J. R., Hunt, J. G., and Osborn, R. N. (2005). Organizational Behavior. 9th edition, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.